An Adaptable Framework for Ontology-based Content Creation on the Semantic Web

Abstract: Creation of rich, ontology-based metadata is one of the major challenges in developing the Semantic Web. Emerging applications utilizing semantic web techniques, such as semantic portals, cannot be realized if there are no proper tools to provide metadata for them. This paper discusses how to make provision of metadata easier and cost-effective by an annotation framework comprising of annotation editor combined with shared ontology services. We have developed an annotation system Saha supporting distributed collaboration in creating annotations, and hiding the complexity of the annotation schema and the domain ontologies from the annotators. Saha adapts flexibly to different metadata schemas, which makes it suitable for different applications. Support for using ontologies is based on ontology services, such as concept searching and browsing, concept URI fetching, semantic autocompletion and linguistic concept extraction. The system is being tested in various practical semantic portal projects.

Keywords: Semantic Web, Ontologies, Annotation, Metadata, Information Extraction

Categories: H.3.1, H.3.2, H.3.4

1 Introduction

Metadata descriptions are usually based on ontologies of two kinds. First, an annotation ontology, i.e. a metadata schema, tells what kind of properties and value types should be used in describing a resource. For example, the Dublin Core schema¹ uses 15 elements, such as dc:title, dc:creator, dc:subject, etc. Second, a set of domain ontologies are used to define vocabularies by which the values for metadata properties are given. This suggests that three kinds of tools are needed to address the problems of metadata creation. First, an annotation editor supporting the usage of different metadata schemas is needed. Second, we need services for supporting the usage of the domain ontologies (vocabularies) that are employed for the annotations. Third, tools for automating the creation of actual metadata descriptions in various ways, e.g., for finding suitable values for the elements, must be developed.

To test this idea, we have developed a system of three integrated tools that can be used to efficiently create semantic annotations based on metadata schemas, domain ontology services, and linguistic information extraction. These tools include, at the moment, an annotation editor system Saha² [Valkeapää and Hyvönen 06], an ontology service framework Onki³ [Komulainen et al. 05, Viljanen et al. 07] and an information extraction tool Poka⁴ for (semi)automatic annotation. The annotation editor Saha supports collaborative creation of annotations and it can be connected to Onki servers for importing concepts defined in various external domain ontologies. Saha has a browser-based user interface that hides complexity of ontologies from the annotator, and adapts easily to different metadata schemas. The tool is targeted especially for creating metadata about web resources. It is being used in different applications within the National Semantic Web Ontology Project in Finland⁵ (FinnONTO) [Hyvönen et al. 07b].

2 Saha Annotation System

2.1 Requirements for the System

•  Simplicity. The system should, as a rule, hide technical concepts related to markup languages and ontologies from its user.
• Adaptivity. The system should be adaptable to different annotation cases with different kinds of contents to be described.
• Quality. When annotation is done by hand, the annotator should be guided to produce annotations in qualified and pre-defined form, if needed.
• Collaboration. The system should support collaborative annotation, where the annotation process can be shared among different annotators at different locations.
• Portability. The annotator should be able to use the system at any location without installing any special software.

2.2 Utilizing Annotation Schemas

Saha uses an approach similar to the one introduced in [Kettler et al. 05] to form its user interface according to an annotation schema loaded into it. Saha does not use any proprietary schemas, but instead will accept any RDF/OWL-based ontology as a schema. By schemas we mean a collection of classes with a set of properties. An annotation in Saha is an instance of a schema’s class that describes some web resource and is being linked to it using the resource’s URL (in some cases, URI). We make a distinction between an annotation of a document (e.g. a web page) and a description of some other resource (e.g. a person) that is somehow related to the document being annotated. Accordingly, we can divide classes of a schema to those that describe documents and those that describe some other resources⁶. An annotation schema can be seen as a basis for a local knowledge base (KB) that contains descriptions of different kinds of resources that may or may not exist on the web.

Figure 1 illustrates how an annotation describing a document could be related to different kinds of resources. Properties and classes in the figure are only examples of types of resources that an annotation schema might contain. Saha itself does not define any classes or properties, but instead, they are always expressed by the schema. In figure 1, an annotation is connected to a document using the property saha:annotates. The property dc:subject points to a class of an external (domain/reference) ontology and the property dc:creator to a KB-instance.

Each annotation schema loaded to Saha forms an annotation project, which can have multiple users as annotators. In practice, an annotation project consists of Jena’s⁷ontology model stored in a database and of settings defining how the schema should be used in the project. The database is used solely for storing the RDF triples of the ontology model. Settings of a project are stored in an RDF file, which is read each time the project is being loaded. An ontology model can be serialized to RDF/XML in order to use the annotations in external applications.

 

Figure 1: Annotations in Saha

One of the purposes of an annotation schema is to guide an annotator in creating annotations. In order to ease the annotation we prefer using as simple schemas as is practical for each annotation case, containing rather tens than hundreds or thousands of classes and properties. Because of this and due to manual work required in defining settings for an annotation project, Saha is not designed, nor meant to be used with very large annotation schemas. This is opposed to reference ontologies which are used to define vocabularies for the annotations. They are typically more complex and much larger in size when compared to annotation schemas. In order to conveniently utilize these kinds of reference ontologies in annotations, we are providing annotator with browsing and searching capabilities of the Onki ontology library system.

Since the schemas used in Saha may contain any kinds of resources (classes, properties, and instances) and relations between them, the following aspects must be considered, among others, when a schema is used in annotation:

• Which of the schema’s classes and properties an annotator can use in annotations and how are these resources shown to her?
• To what class(es) a property is attached, if the relations are not explicitly stated using restrictions, such as rdfs:domain?
• How are external ontologies and information extraction components attached to different resources of the schema?

 To facilitate the use of arbitrary annotation schemas and address the questions stated above, we need a way to configure an annotation tool for various annotation schemas. The idea similar to this is discussed in [Handschuh and Staab 02], where it is proposed that the design of ontologies should be separated from the way they are used in annotation. In Saha, the rules describing how an annotation schema is to be used are defined by the administrator of an annotation project, when the project is being created. For this task, Saha offers a simple administrative interface.

2.3 Architecture and User Interface

Saha is a web application implemented using the Apache Cocoon⁸ and Jena frameworks. It uses extensively techniques such as JavaScript and Ajax⁹. The basic architecture of Saha is depicted in figure 2. It consists of the following functional parts: 1) annotators using web browsers to interact with the system, 2) Saha application running on a web server, 3) applications using the annotations created with Saha, 4) the Onki ontology service, 5) PostgreSQL database used store the annotations, and 6) the Poka information extraction tool.

 The user interface of Saha, depicted in figure 3, provides an annotator with a view of the classes and properties of an annotation schema. The annotator can choose a class from the class hierarchy (left side of the screen), view the annotations/KB-instances and create new ones. The lower part of the screen views the resource being annotated. In figure 3, an annotation belonging to class "Web page" is being edited. The properties of the annotation, such as "Title", as well as fields to supply values for them are shown on the right side of the class hierarchy.

Properties of an annotation schema accept either literal or object values. In the latter case, values are KB-instances or concepts of some external domain ontology. KB-instances can be chosen using semantic autocompletion [Hyvönen and Mäkelä 06]. Here, the user types in a search word and selects a proper instance from the list populated dynamically by the system after each input character. If the proper KB-instance does not exist, user may also create a new one. rdfs:range or owl:Restriction is used to define the types of things that are allowed as values.
 

2.4 Setting Up an Annotation Project

In Saha, property values can be filled in manually or by using integrated ontology services, which include the ontology server system Onki and the automatic information extraction tool Poka. When using these services, we map a property of an annotation schema to the desired service.
 

 In the case of Onki, the values of the property will be concepts defined in some external domain ontologies, selected by an annotator using a dedicated Onki-browser. When Poka is used, values are ontological concepts or literals provided by the extraction tool. For example, an extraction component recognizing person names could be coupled with the property dc:creator.

Settings for an annotation project are done using a dedicated browser-based user interface, which provides an administrator of an annotation project a view to the classes and properties of an annotation schema. Using the interface (depicted in figure 4), an administrator can define the basic settings for the project, such as choosing the classes of the schema to be used in annotations.
 

3 Onki Ontology Services

One of the key features of Saha is its ability to connect to centralized ontology server system Onki [Komulainen et al. 05, Viljanen et al. 07]. The idea of Onki is to provide applications with ready-to-use ontology service functionalities such as ontology browsing and searching annotation concepts using semantic autocompletion. In addition to offering browse and search capabilities, static ontology files are made available for downloading in RDF/XML. Here, recipes 5 and 6 of the best practices for publishing RDF vocabularies recommended by W3C [W3C, 06], are followed.

In Saha, concepts of external domain ontologies can be used as values of an annotation schema’s properties using services provided by Onki. Concepts are made available for the annotators through Onki’s two interfaces to ontological information: searching (see figure 5) and browsing (see figure 6).
 

 The first one is similar to the instance KB search for choosing values to object properties. When using it, the annotator types a search word which is sent to the Onki ontology server character by character and matched with the concepts in the underlying ontology. Concepts matching to the query will be sent back to Saha and shown below the search field from which they can be selected by the user. The other option, depicted in figure 6, is to use a browser view of the Onki system. It is practical when the annotator does not get agreeable results using semantic autocompletion, or wants to see the resources within the context of the class hierarchy. The Onki ontology browser can be opened in a new window by clicking a property field in Saha. After that, the annotator is able to browse the class hierarchy, and when a suitable concept is found, fetch it to the input form of Saha by clicking on the button "Fetch concept" on the Onki browser page. Both modes of using ontology services provided by Onki can be conveniently integrated with different web applications on the client side using Ajax.

4 Poka Information Extraction Tool

In schema-based annotation, things to be extracted are defined by the properties of the annotation schema’s classes. Accordingly, the function of an extraction component is to provide suitable concepts or entities as property values. To support arbitrary annotation schemas, extraction tools must be adaptable to different extraction tasks. In Poka environment, we have solved the problem of adaptivity in two ways. First, we have implemented generic non-ontological extraction components such as person name identifier and regular expression extractor. Second, user-defined external ontologies can be integrated with the system and used in concept recognition.

4.1 Document Pre-processing

For the Finnish content, part-of-speech tagging of FDG is also utilized. Based on the part-of-speech information, Poka tags the tokens to substantives, adjectives, numerals, verbs and uppercase type. With the typing of tokens, Poka’s extraction process can be focused on a certain type of tokens to speed up the extraction phase. In some cases, the focusing also helps to discard false hits in concept matching. For example, if we know that the named entities are written in uppercase format in the document collection, the search of places from the place ontology can be started from the uppercase words. Respectively, search of the verb-ontology’s resources can be focused to verb-tokens.

Poka can extract concepts from various document types. In Saha integration, it currently supports concept extraction from HTML, PDF, and text documents. The support for other document formats (e.g. MS Word and PostScript) can be achieved with the integration of text decoder tools.

4.2 Extraction of Non-ontological Entities

 Simple coreference resolution within a document is implemented by mapping the individual name occurrences to the corresponding unambiguous full name if one exists. Individual first names and surnames without corresponding full names are discarded. Search for potential names is started from the uppercase words of the document utilizing a predefined list of first names. With morphosyntactic clues some hits can be discarded. For example, first names in Finnish rarely have certain morphological affixations such as "-ssa" (similar to the English preposition "in") or "-lla" (preposition "on") when they occur before the surname in the sentence. The FDG-parser's surface-syntactic analysis is also used for revealing proper names.

The names that are automatically recognized are suggested as potential new instances in Saha. The type of a new instance is a reference class of the annotation schema used in Saha, e.g. foaf:person. If there exists an instance with the same name, the annotator can tell whether the newfound name refers to an existing instance or to a new one. If a new instance is created, the user fills additional person information according to the schema definition.

The regular expression extractor is utilized to suggest values for literal properties. The extraction pattern is defined in the annotation project’s settings. A pattern is defined in Java pattern notation¹¹. When the document URL is set, the pattern is matched against words of the document. For example, a date pattern of the form DD-MM-YYYY, retrieves all the occurrences of the pattern to the literal field. The suitable values are then selected by the user. Current implementation does not support multi-word patterns.

4.3 Extraction of Ontological Concepts

To ease the integration of user-defined ontologies as vocabularies, we have created a browser-based user interface, DynaPoka, for this task (see figure 7). DynaPoka offers a way to examine and view the literal resources of an ontology. First, an ontology is uploaded to the server and the ontology’s subsumption structure (rdfs:sublassOf), literal properties and language tags are shown. The end-user can view literal values by choosing properties and languages. Selection of a class in the tree-view shows the labels of the resources that are subclasses of the selected class or instances of a subclass. DynaPoka offers a user interface to test how the selected string values suit the extraction task. The user interface has an inline frame for visualising the extraction of web pages. After the URL input, each occurrence of the resource’s string is bolded in the HTML document.

DynaPoka acts as a tool for integrating a user-defined ontology for Saha. The selected resources can be serialized as Poka’s internal term file format. 

The term files define the resource labels to be extracted using Saha. DynaPoka eases the adaptation and reuse of ontological resources as extraction vocabularies. It offers a solution to the portability problem which can be seen as a major drawback in the reuse of information extraction systems [Grishman 97].

For efficient string matching in the extraction process, the string representations of ontological resources are indexed in a prefix tree. Since two or more concepts may share the same label, a word in the trie is allowed to refer to multiple URIs. For language-dependent concept search, the labels of ontological concepts are also lemmatized to achieve better recall.

Currently the adaptation of new extraction ontologies is done by system experts. Our future work involves developing a user interface for integrating ontological resources for extraction.

In our project, we have mainly harnessed two ontologies for extraction. For place recognition, the place ontology of the MuseumFinland portal [Hyvönen et al. 05b] extended in the CultureSampo portal [Hyvönen et al. 07a] is exploited. For topic indexing, the General Finnish Upper Ontology (YSO) [Hyvönen et al. 05a, 07b] is in use.

 It contains over 20,000 Finnish indexing concepts organized into ten major subsumption hierarchies. The concepts of the ontology are based on the indexing terms of the General Finnish Thesaurus YSA¹².

 To improve the recognition of important indexing terms, it is possible to weight the concepts of a document in different ways. For example, in topic indexing, concepts that form semantic cliques, i.e. semantically related terms, gain more weight as suggested in [Vehviläinen et al. 06]. This means that suggested YSO-concepts for a topic property are ordered by not only the term frequency, but by taking into account the semantic connectedness or neighbourhood context of the concepts as well.

4.4 Resource Identification

Poka supports both identification cases. In Saha, the resource identification is solved by human intervention. For example, if Poka has found a string token from the document matching to the labels of two different concepts in the place ontology, the user has to choose one of them, or create a new place concept.

One of the main difficulties in the Saha user interface is how to represent disambiguation for the annotator. For example, we may have an object property with a class person as its range. Existing persons for the property may simultaneously be derived from 1) an actor ontology connected to Poka’s concept extraction tool, 2) Saha’s local instance KB or 3) the actor ontology in the Onki server. Moreover, an annotator may want to instantiate a new person. All in all, the identification task seems to induce complexity in the ontology-based modeling and annotation.

Systems utilizing automatic annotation like Magpie [Dzbor et al. 03] and Melita [Ciravegna et al. 02] cannot identify resources sharing the same label. In fully automatic annotation systems KIM [Popov et al. 06] and Semtag [Dill et al. 03], the architectures support instance identification in a restricted pre-defined ontology model.

In Saha annotation framework, the annotation process is semi-automatic and based on the user’s input. This approach enhances the manual annotation process, but may be insufficient for vast annotation projects. A shift towards automatic annotation could be provided by first annotating automatically all possible resources and then using Saha for qualifying the results. The quality assurance approach could be provided with a user interface highlighting the possible conflicts in the annotations, such as disambiguated resources and new resources created with related names.

5 Related Work

5.1 Manual and Semi-Automatic Annotation Tools

The Ont-O-Mat system [Handschuh and Staab 02], in turn, can be used to describe diverse semantic structures as well as to edit ontologies. It also has a support for automated annotation. The user interface of the Ont-O-Mat is not, however, very well-suited for annotators unfamiliar with concepts related to ontologies and semantic annotation in general.

Semantic Markup Tool (SMT) [Kettler et al. 05] is a schema-based, semi-automatic annotation system developed by the ISX Corporation. The system supports information extraction from the HTML-pages. Extraction is based on commercial, non-ontological tools [Kettler et al. 05] which retrieve person names, place names and date strings from the documents. Schemas are defined by a system expert and it is not clearly stated how easily the system can be adapted to new ones. In SMT, schemas are defined in XML and the output can be serialized into OWL. The article [Kettler et al. 05] does not explicitly state the way how extracted literal values are treated. For example, if the extracted values act as names (e.g. rdfs:label) of the new instances (e.g. persons), is it possible to define other names for them? If not, identification of resources sharing the same name is difficult if the only distinctive feature is the URI of each resource. Another fundamental issue concerns the possibility to re-reference populated instances. To achieve rich semantic markup, an instance populated from a document must be reached from another. For example, two documents may have the same author.

Most of the current annotation systems, like the ones mentioned here, are applications that run locally on the annotator’s computer. Because of this, the systems may not necessarily be platform independent and must always be installed locally by the user before annotating. In Saha, these problems are addressed by implementing the system as a web application. By doing so, the system can be installed and maintained centrally and the requirements for the annotator’s computational environment are minimal. The way Saha is designed and implemented also strongly supports the collaboration in annotation, making the sharing of annotations and new individuals (free indexing concepts) easy.

5.2 Methods for Automatic Extraction

 An extraction component is usually connected to a class (or classes) of an ontology. Applications using non-ontological extraction methods are, for example, Gate’s OntoGazetteer [Kenter and Maynard 05], KIM [Popov et al. 03] and SMT [Kettler et al. 05]. An adaptive extraction tool Amilcare [Ciravegna and Wilks 03] can be also characterised as a non-ontological extraction tool: strings tagged from a document define the extraction pattern for the concept.

The second group consists of tools where the information to be extracted is primarily derived from an ontology. Applications in this category involve DynaPoka and the concept highlighter tool Magpie [Dzbor et al. 03] and automatic ontology-based indexing and retrieval tool Semtag [Dill et al. 03].

Magpie is a web browser plugin that highlights string representations of ontological resources on a web page. In hands-on testing, Magpie’s extraction methods show some apparent weaknesses. If the ontology contains two or more corresponding strings, only the first one is shown. In addition to this, there seems to be some problems with overlapping strings as well. For example, if the ontology has string representations "semantic", "web" and "semantic web", the document’s string "semantic web" does not match with the last one.

In KIM, extraction of ontological resources is based on a set of non-ontological extraction tools. An extraction tool is harnessed to extract certain types of concepts. For example, KIM’s person name recognition tool extracts person names and compares a found string to the string representations of persons in the ontology. If a string matches with the existing one, an occurrence of an existing person is found. Otherwise a new person is instantiated. An elegant feature of the KIM system is to treat pre-populated ontological instances as trusted; conversely, new instances found from the documents are uncertain, untrusted entities [Popov et al. 03].

Semtag extracts, disambiguates and indexes automatically named entity resources of the ontology. Albeit resembling the KIM platform [Popov et al. 03], the extraction method is completely different. Semtag extracts strings based on the string representations of the ontology.

From our point of view, the field of automatic annotation lacks systems that can easily adapt existing ontologies to be used as vocabularies in extraction. In Magpie, word lists are derived from the ontology by the system experts. Semtag and Kim utilize state-of-art extraction methods, but the systems are difficult to adapt for different tasks.

6 Evaluation

Full usability testing of Saha has not yet been conducted. Initial feedback from end-users indicates that some intricate ontological structures, such as deep relation paths between resources, may be difficult to comprehend. These difficulties, however, can be facilitated by proper design of annotation schemas. Following cases explain how Saha is being applied in metadata creation for CultureSampo.
 

6.1 Annotating Historical Buildings in Espoo

Saha offered a convenient way for the museum’s staff to take part in the content creation process where the data is ontologically described. Despite not being experienced in data processing in general and in semantic web technologies in particular, they were successful in using Saha and achieved goals set for enrichment of the data. Here, the crucial point was to provide them with tools that did not require high degree of technical skill and were both easy to learn and to use. The case also serves as an example of how Saha can contribute to the content creation process that cannot be fully automated.

After the annotation stage at the museum, the data will be loaded to CultureSampo portal, where historical buildings are presented in context with other cultural artefacts featured in the portal.

6.2 Annotating Poems of Kalevala

The annotations were initially created by hand by a folklorist using MS Excel. Later, the same data was manually converted to RDF/OWL using Saha. This work was done by a person with some knowledge on the Semantic Web technologies, but not involved in developing Saha. The results of the case study show that Saha can be used to create annotations with rather complex semantic structures, which may contain long relation paths between different resources.

7 Discussion and Future Work

Our future plans include using Saha to provide metadata for additional semantic portals as well as further develop the automation of the annotation. Currently, the coupling of the annotation schema’s properties and information extraction components provided by Poka are not fully utilizing the ontological characteristics. In other words, instead of using restrictions and constraints such as rdfs:range to define which of the schema’s properties an automatically recognized resource matches to, we are currently using a meta-schema to do the mapping. However, our plans include using the property restrictions to do the matching in the future. We are also aiming to map the automatically extracted entities to ontologies in order to support property restriction with them as well. For example, date regular expressions would be mapped to a corresponding class of the reference ontology, say myOnto:Date. This way, the proper values for an object property are defined by the range (ontological restriction), not by the component itself.

Acknowledgements

This research is a part of the National Ontology Project in Finland (FinnONTO) 2003-2007, funded mainly by the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (Tekes) and a consortium of 36 companies and public organizations.

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